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1 In I Kings x. 28 read with LXX and Vulg. miq-Qo|wah ("from Kué [Cilicia]") twice instead of MT miqwe | h ("drove"). So, too, in 2 Sam. xxiv. 6, referred to above, read with LXX eres ha-Hiitti | m Qa | dhe | sha | h for MT eres Tuhtim-hodhshi.
2 In this paper the guttural spirant in Egyptian, Akkadian, and Hittite words is, for general convenience, transliterated kh.
3 See accounts by Wright, The Empire of the Hittites (1884); Sayce, The Hittites (1888; 4th ed. 1925); A. E. Cowley, The Hittites (1920); D. G. Hogarth, Kings of the Hittites (1926).
4 The leading worker on Hittite hieroglyphs is Professor Ignace J. Gelb of Chicago University; see his Hittite Hieroglyphs i-iii (1932-35-42); Hittite Hieroglyphic Monuments (1939).
5 These eight languages are Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Proto-Hittite, Luwian, Palaic, Hurrian and Aryan.
6 He announced his discovery in "Die Lösung des hethitischen Problems" in Mitteilungen der deutschen Orientgesellschaft, No. 56 (1915), and in Die Sprache der Hethiter (1916-17).
7 On the Hittite language see E. H. Sturtevant, Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language (1933), Hittite Glossary (2nd ed., 1936), and Supplement to Hittite Glossary (1937), and E. H. Sturtevant and G. Bechtel, Hittite Chrestomathy (1935). Sturtevant holds that Hittite is not in the ordinary sense an Indo-European language, but that Hittite and Proto-Indo-European are both descended from a common parent stock which he calls "Indo-Hittite"; this view is accepted by several scholars, but is quite unnecessary. Hittite was radically affected by the influence of other languages. Its Indo-European character is evident from its morphology rather than its vocabulary. Many words from native Anatolian languages have found their way into it. If its phonology and morphology are simpler than those of other early Indo-European languages, this is not because it was a language in the making, but one whose synthetic structure had already begun to break down, under the impact of other languages (cf. Old English under the impact of Norman French, Bulgarian under the impact of invaders speaking a Turco-Tataric language, Persian under the impact of Arabic).
8 J. Knudtzon, Die zwei Arzawabriefe: die ältesten Urkunden in indogermanischer Sprache (1902).
9 It was not, however, from these Assyrian-merchants that the Hittites appear to have taken over the cuneiform script, but through the Hurrians as intermediaries. See E. A. Speiser, Introduction to Hurrian (1941), pp. 13 f.
10 In a treaty between the Hittite king Suppiluliumas and the Mitanni king Mattiwaza, among the gods of Mitanni invoked are Mitrashil, Arunashil, Intara, and Nashatiyana; these are obviously the same as the Indian deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and the Nasatya twins. Among the Mitanni kings we have such typically Aryan names as Artatama, Artashuwara; among the Kassite kings, Burnaburyash, Nazi-bugash, Nazi-maruttash.
11 Among the Boğaz-köy records is a treatise on the care of horses and chariot-racing, written by a man named Kikkuli, who belonged originally to Mitanni. Although composed in Hittite, it contains the following Aryan technical terms: aikawartanna, terawartanna, panzawartanna, shattawartanna, and nawartanna (by haplology for nawa-wartanna), meaning "one turning", "three turnings", "five turnings", "seven turnings", and "nine turnings" respectively. The numerals correspond to Sanskrit eka, tri, pañca, sapta, and nava (but that for "seven" has already reached the Prakrit stage with the assimilation of p to t); the second element in the compounds corresponds to Sanskrit vartana, "turning." In Syria at this time we find an equestrian warrior-caste called mariannu, with which we may compare Sanskrit
marya, "young man." Hebrew sûs, "horse," is very likely an Aryan loanword; cf. Sanskrit açva(s). It should be noted that Sayce's theory that Hebrew pa | ra | sh , "horse," is a word of Hittite origin is quite erroneous; see O. R. Gurney, in PEFQ. 1937, pp. 194f. E. A. Speiser suggests that one of the Egyptian words for "chariot" may be of Hurrian origin (Ethnic Movements in the Near East [1933], pp. 49 f.).
12 Proto-Hittite has been connected with the North-West Caucasian language-group (R. Bleichsteiner in Ebert's Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte vi [1926], pp. 260-63). Such connections are in the nature of the case precarious. Among ancient tongues Proto-Hittite shows contacts with Hurrian, Elamite, and Kassite; i.e., it belongs to the language-group to which the late N. Marr and his school give the name "Japhetic". It was a prefixing language; e.g., binu, "child," has a plural lebinu, "children."
13 The title appears as Tabarnas. Actually the word is Proto-Hittite, having as its initial sound an unvoiced l which is represented now as l, now as t, and sometimes as tl. The same sound appears in Elamite. Compare the Aztec unvoiced l which the Spaniards represented in writing as tl, as in Quetzalcoatl, Popocatapetl. The unvoiced Welsh ll, which some English speakers try to represent by lth or thl, is a similar sound.
14 The name Mursilis survived for long in Asia Minor. According to Herodotus (i. 7) Myrsilos was the name by which the Lydian king Kandaules was known to the Greeks; he implies that it was a patronymic, Kandaules being the son of Myrsos. Cf. Myrsilos, tyrant of Mytilene in the seventh century B.C., whose death is celebrated by Alcaeus (fragment 39): —
nun chre methusthen kai tina proz bian
ponen epeide katthane Mursilos
15 The end of the First (Amorite) Dynasty of Babylon, which was precipitated by this raid, is given by Sidney Smith as 1595 B.C., by W. F. Albright as 1550.
16 The idea that Telepinus extended his influence as far south as Damascus has been based on a doubtful identification of the Damaskhunas of the Hittite records.
17 The matriarchate in Asia Minor is of course closely connected with the worship of the Great Mother of the Gods in that area.
18 See F. Sommer, Die Ahhijava-Urkunden (1932).
19 The date of the Trojan War was, according to Eratosthenes, 1193-1184 B.C.; according to the Parian Marble, 1218-1209 B.C. This traditional dating accords remarkably closely with archæological evidence.
20 Some people called Khatti raided Babylon and occupied it for a few days in the time of Nebuchadrezzar I (c. 1130 B.C.).
21 Quoted by Sayce, The Hittites (4th ed., 1925), p. 11.
22 In the Beginning, Clarendon Bible vi. (1947), pp. 92 f.
23 Op. cit., p. 93.
24 E. A. Speiser, Mesopotamian Origins (1930), pp. 134f.; J. Paterson, in Studia Semitica et Orientalia ii. (Glasgow, 1945), p. 101.
25 The Semitic names given to early rulers of Jerusalem, Melchizedek (Gen. xiv. 18), and Adonizedek (Josh. x. 1), would derive from the Amorite element in the city's population.
26 His name is variously given as Awarnah, Arawnah, and Aranyah in 2 Sam. xxiv. 16 ff., and is glossed ham-melekh, "the king," in ver. 23.
27 Sayce attempted to find a Hittite etymology for Ephron in Gen. xxiii. (JTS. xxix. [1928], p. 405) and suggested that it was equivalent to Hittite khipparas, which he rendered "freeholder". "Ephron, 'the Freeholder,' was thus absolute master of the property which he sold to Abraham." (But Sturtevant's Hittite Glossary, p. 50, gives khipparas the meaning "captive"!) Ephron's father Zohar, Sayce thought, bore a name equivalent to zukharu of the Assyro-Cappadocian tablets, a word denoting the "boy" or "agent" of the Assyrian merchants. This may be ignored, but his further remark is noteworthy, that the Biblical writer in Gen. xxiii.
16 f. repeats the technical language of the contract tables found at Kül-tepe and Kirkuk.
28 In Syria and Palestine we find such Aryan names as Shuwardata, Artamanya, Shubandu, Piridashwa, Indaruta.
29 "Possible is also the assumption of a Horite subdivision known as the Hiwwites, whose name supplanted the more general designation [Horites] on account of complications arising through popular etymology" (E. A. Speiser, Ethnic Movements [1933]. p. 30).
30 E. A. Speiser concludes that "the Avvim who dwelt in enclosures (hase | rim)" (Deut. ii. 23) "represented a Hyksos group" (Ethnic Movements, p. 31).
31 Speiser, Ethnic Movements, p. 48.
32 Speiser, Ethnic Movements, pp. 34, 51; T. J. Meek, Hebrew Origins (1936), p. 5; J. Finegan, Light from the Ancient Past (1946), p. 125.
33 W. F. Albright discussed the date of Abraham in the Journal of the Society of Oriental Research x. (1926), pp. 231-69. An earlier date might be suggested if we accept the attractive identification of the campaign of Gen. xiv with the destruction of the Bronze Age civilization of Transjordan dated by Nelson Glueck around 1900 B.C.; but an accommodation between the two datings may yet be reached.
34 F. M. Th. Böhl (Das Zeitalter Abrahams [1930], p. 23) thinks that Arioch may be an Indo-European name Aryaka ("worthy of an Aryan" or "honourable"); but Speiser, with greater probability, connects it with the Hurrian name Ariukki (Ethnic Movements, p. 45). (More recently Böhl has suggested an identification of Arioch with Ar-ri-wu-uk in the Mari letters; see Bibliotheca Orientalis ii, p. 66.)
35 Böhl (op. cit., p. 13) draws attention to the tendentious Massoretic vocalization of some of these names: Laomer being vocalized as lab-bo | sheth ("for shame"); Amraphel as 'ara | phel ("darkness"), whereas LXX gives his name as Amarphal.
36 Khammurabi of Yamkhad and Khammurabi of Kurda. Cf. Sidney Smith, Alalakh and Chronology (1940), p. 10.
37 Sidney Smith, op. cit., p. 23.
38 So Böhl, op. cit., p. 13. Cf. Speiser, Ethnic Movements, p. 45. It appears that Albright was the first to express the view that the name contains the element Amurru, a view which, says Speiser, "is unquestionably sound."
39 Albright in JSOR. x. (1926), p. 256; Böhl, op. cit., p. 13.
40 Elsewhere (e.g. Gen. x. 10; xi. 2) Shinar may well represent Sumer, which goes back to an earlier Sumerian form Kiengi(r).
41 Professor Rowley places the Descent into Egypt around 1365 B.C., which would agree well enough with Böhl's date for Abraham.
42 BASOR. 58 (1935), p. 16; From the Stone Age to Christianity (1940), p. 184.
43 The identification of Tidal with Tudkhalias I is favoured by Sayce (The Hittites, 4th ed., p. 228) and by Professor Hooke (In the Beginning, pp. 73 f.).
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